Historical Perspective of Cognitive Learning Theory
Historical perspective of cognitive learning theory is very interesting. First of all, it is important to understand what cognitive learning theory is all about. This theory is about understanding how the human mind works while people learn.
According to cognitive learning theory, an active student learn when he made the effort to organize, store and found a relationship between the old and new information, scripts and schemes. In simple words, cognitive learning theory is about how information is processed by the mind.
Previously when behaviourism was at the forefront, many psychologists do not approve of the theory. They believe that behaviorism is too much emphasis on single events, stimulation and excessive behavior. This opinion is most of the Gestalt psychologists. These psychologists believe that any perception or image should be studied as a whole rather than in the parts of the whole. This idea gradually began to have a profound impact on what psychologists think about learning. While behavioral psychologists look to one's environment, the Gestalt psychologists began to focus on one's cognition or learning process.
Researchers such as Jean Piaget made an important contribution to the theory of cognitive learning. Piaget recognized that the environment plays a role, but he focused on the changes that occur in the internal cognitive structure. In fact, Piaget role in identifying the four stages of mental growth, the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.
Jerome Bruner, another researcher, focused on how mental processes can be linked to teaching and he stressed that learning occurs through discovery. Robert M Gagne was instrumental in identifying the forms of learning 8.
Today, cognitive learning theory is the dominant force in psychology.
Kamis, 24 Desember 2009
Cognitive Transitions in Youth
Cognitive Transitions in Youth
In child development, adolescence is considered as the second decade of life a person starts from the age of 10 and lasted until 20.
Adolescence is a time for a child to grow and move from childhood to adulthood. Still, the transition phase from childhood to adulthood.
Unfortunately there is no demarcation line indicating the end of childhood and early adolescence. On the contrary, psychologists believe that when a child moves from childhood to adolescence, he gradually went through a series of transitions that affect the behavior, development and relationships. This is a transition phase of biological, cognitive, social, and emotional.
This article is about the cognitive transition in adolescence.
Cognitive Transition in Adolescence:
Cognitive phase transition is important in child development. This is the stage where teenagers learn to think in a way that is more advanced, efficient and complex than the way the children. Initially, when a child moves into adolescence, he was able to think better. He was able to think about different possibilities rather than limit themselves to what is real as children do. In other words, a teenager can think hypothetically.
Next adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract ideas. For example, teens can understand the meaning of the abstract in word games, proverbs, metaphors and analogies. Since a teenager can think about abstract things, it also allows him to apply advanced reasoning and logic to social issues and ideological. This is clearly seen as a teenager show interest in interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, morality, friendship, faith, democracy, honesty and fairness.
The third stage of cognitive transition in adolescence is about the thought process itself, also known as metacognition. This is because it is in a transition phase cognitive showed that adolescents more introspection and self-awareness. Metacognitive offers intellectual advantages but also teenagers negatively affect them. They tend to be more self-centered and always busy with their own self.
Other cognitive changes that you see on teenagers is their ability to think about various things. Children can concentrate on one thing at a time when young people can see many perspectives, and they interpret things in different ways depending on what perspective they hold.
Cognitive transitions at the end of adolescence is the ability to see things as relative. The kids take everything at face value and the world is black and they white. They do not see shades of gray. Adolescents develop the ability to see the gray and that is why they tend not to accept the facts referred to as complete truth. They also learn to question the parents and this can be very annoying because it seemed to question teenager by starting an argument.
In child development, adolescence is considered as the second decade of life a person starts from the age of 10 and lasted until 20.
Adolescence is a time for a child to grow and move from childhood to adulthood. Still, the transition phase from childhood to adulthood.
Unfortunately there is no demarcation line indicating the end of childhood and early adolescence. On the contrary, psychologists believe that when a child moves from childhood to adolescence, he gradually went through a series of transitions that affect the behavior, development and relationships. This is a transition phase of biological, cognitive, social, and emotional.
This article is about the cognitive transition in adolescence.
Cognitive Transition in Adolescence:
Cognitive phase transition is important in child development. This is the stage where teenagers learn to think in a way that is more advanced, efficient and complex than the way the children. Initially, when a child moves into adolescence, he was able to think better. He was able to think about different possibilities rather than limit themselves to what is real as children do. In other words, a teenager can think hypothetically.
Next adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract ideas. For example, teens can understand the meaning of the abstract in word games, proverbs, metaphors and analogies. Since a teenager can think about abstract things, it also allows him to apply advanced reasoning and logic to social issues and ideological. This is clearly seen as a teenager show interest in interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, morality, friendship, faith, democracy, honesty and fairness.
The third stage of cognitive transition in adolescence is about the thought process itself, also known as metacognition. This is because it is in a transition phase cognitive showed that adolescents more introspection and self-awareness. Metacognitive offers intellectual advantages but also teenagers negatively affect them. They tend to be more self-centered and always busy with their own self.
Other cognitive changes that you see on teenagers is their ability to think about various things. Children can concentrate on one thing at a time when young people can see many perspectives, and they interpret things in different ways depending on what perspective they hold.
Cognitive transitions at the end of adolescence is the ability to see things as relative. The kids take everything at face value and the world is black and they white. They do not see shades of gray. Adolescents develop the ability to see the gray and that is why they tend not to accept the facts referred to as complete truth. They also learn to question the parents and this can be very annoying because it seemed to question teenager by starting an argument.
Cognitive And Development Delay
Cognitive And Development Delay
Cognitive development refers to the development of thinking processes, which include problem solving, memory and decision making, which happens to children when he walked through the physical construction of being a teenager and finally an adult.
Previously believed that babies do not have the ability to think, to form ideas of complex and has no cognition until they learn the language. However, this has been proved wrong as research has shown that environmentally conscious baby and they are always interested to explore the environment around them. From the time the baby is born, he began to learn actively. He collects and processes all the information around him and this, in turn, helps babies develop perception and thinking skills.
Cognitive development, therefore, refers to the way how a person thinks, understand and feel the world around him, and this occurs partly through learning and partly due to genetics. The field of cognitive development is estimated to processing, memory, language development, reasoning and intelligence.
If there are delays in cognitive development that resulted in loss or lack of development of cognitive abilities. When a child has a learning disability, it affects the ability to understand what he saw and heard and as a result children are not able to connect information from various parts of the brain.
Delays in cognitive development manifests itself in various ways such as difficulty in speaking and written language, coordination, attention or self-control. If this difficulty is brought to school, it can affect children's ability to read, write and do math. In addition, children with delays in cognitive development may also have heard and / or emotional problems.
If at the age of three years, a child can not understand simple instructions, then it is best to consult a health professional. Children may experience delays in cognitive development. Another reason to suspect the delay of cognitive development is when a child after the age of three years does not show the same progress as other children his age.
Cognitive development refers to the development of thinking processes, which include problem solving, memory and decision making, which happens to children when he walked through the physical construction of being a teenager and finally an adult.
Previously believed that babies do not have the ability to think, to form ideas of complex and has no cognition until they learn the language. However, this has been proved wrong as research has shown that environmentally conscious baby and they are always interested to explore the environment around them. From the time the baby is born, he began to learn actively. He collects and processes all the information around him and this, in turn, helps babies develop perception and thinking skills.
Cognitive development, therefore, refers to the way how a person thinks, understand and feel the world around him, and this occurs partly through learning and partly due to genetics. The field of cognitive development is estimated to processing, memory, language development, reasoning and intelligence.
If there are delays in cognitive development that resulted in loss or lack of development of cognitive abilities. When a child has a learning disability, it affects the ability to understand what he saw and heard and as a result children are not able to connect information from various parts of the brain.
Delays in cognitive development manifests itself in various ways such as difficulty in speaking and written language, coordination, attention or self-control. If this difficulty is brought to school, it can affect children's ability to read, write and do math. In addition, children with delays in cognitive development may also have heard and / or emotional problems.
If at the age of three years, a child can not understand simple instructions, then it is best to consult a health professional. Children may experience delays in cognitive development. Another reason to suspect the delay of cognitive development is when a child after the age of three years does not show the same progress as other children his age.
Cognitive Activities For The Elderly
Cognitive Activities For The Elderly
If someone has a mind and body healthy, the process of aging can be slowed down. This is the reason why doctors stress that parents should remain active mentally and physically at any time.
Cognitive activities for parents is a way to keep the mind alert and helps in improving certain age-related problems.
In order to select the appropriate cognitive activities for parents, it is important that you make yourself aware of the physical and sensory challenges. This will help you find the most suitable activities for a particular parent. Sometimes it helps parents to ask what activities they enjoy and want to take part in than trying to decide for them. This will enable parents to feel like part of the family and show them that their desire is being met with.
Cognitive activity allows the brain to implement and assist in stimulating memory capacity, hand-eye coordination and help them gain control over much of certain brain functions reduces with age. Even holding a simple conversation or a walk or sing songs could be useful for parents. What is important is choosing activities that allow them to use their cognitive abilities but do not confuse or frustrate them.
The following is a brief list of cognitive activities for parents to be fun and beneficial to them.
* Art Project
* Board games like chess or fished
* Bowling
* Playing cards
* Bingo
* Gardening
* Croquet
* Dancing
* Domino
* Teki
Memory game
* Fishing
* Scrapbooking
* Karaoke
Exercise lightly
If someone has a mind and body healthy, the process of aging can be slowed down. This is the reason why doctors stress that parents should remain active mentally and physically at any time.
Cognitive activities for parents is a way to keep the mind alert and helps in improving certain age-related problems.
In order to select the appropriate cognitive activities for parents, it is important that you make yourself aware of the physical and sensory challenges. This will help you find the most suitable activities for a particular parent. Sometimes it helps parents to ask what activities they enjoy and want to take part in than trying to decide for them. This will enable parents to feel like part of the family and show them that their desire is being met with.
Cognitive activity allows the brain to implement and assist in stimulating memory capacity, hand-eye coordination and help them gain control over much of certain brain functions reduces with age. Even holding a simple conversation or a walk or sing songs could be useful for parents. What is important is choosing activities that allow them to use their cognitive abilities but do not confuse or frustrate them.
The following is a brief list of cognitive activities for parents to be fun and beneficial to them.
* Art Project
* Board games like chess or fished
* Bowling
* Playing cards
* Bingo
* Gardening
* Croquet
* Dancing
* Domino
* Teki
Memory game
* Fishing
* Scrapbooking
* Karaoke
Exercise lightly
Cognitive Activities for Long-Term
Cognitive Activities for Long-Term
There is much evidence to show that a healthy mind can help facilitate a healthy body. That is why cognitive activity for the long-term care patients is very important because it helps to keep them alert.
This activity can be very useful for seniors who are at risk for dementia and other debilitating age-related memory problems. In addition, they found to help Alzheimer's patients.
There are a number of cognitive activity for long-term care patients are available. There are some classic board games that can be played on a regular basis to relieve loneliness and stress while exercising the mind. This game is a senior stay healthy and vibrant.
In addition, when the games and activities are part of daily routine, it provides the patient a way to interact, socialize and exercise. In addition to board games, card games like Euchre and Bridge are also found help cognition in seniors.
Scrabble is a board game that helps to build memory skills as a senior forced to recall basic information. Chess is another game that requires skill, intelligence and ability to plan and help promote and maintain all of these skills in players.
A study conducted in 2004 by the British Journal of Neurology showed that playing backgammon help symptoms of Alzheimer's. This is one game that helps to improve one's cognitive skills. A game like Parcheesi help develop hand-eye coordination and basic problem-solving skills. Meanwhile, Chinese Checkers is a whole lot of fun, also involving logic and sequence during play. It is a cognitive activity that is perfect for long-term care patients as one can spend hours playing it without realizing it.
There is much evidence to show that a healthy mind can help facilitate a healthy body. That is why cognitive activity for the long-term care patients is very important because it helps to keep them alert.
This activity can be very useful for seniors who are at risk for dementia and other debilitating age-related memory problems. In addition, they found to help Alzheimer's patients.
There are a number of cognitive activity for long-term care patients are available. There are some classic board games that can be played on a regular basis to relieve loneliness and stress while exercising the mind. This game is a senior stay healthy and vibrant.
In addition, when the games and activities are part of daily routine, it provides the patient a way to interact, socialize and exercise. In addition to board games, card games like Euchre and Bridge are also found help cognition in seniors.
Scrabble is a board game that helps to build memory skills as a senior forced to recall basic information. Chess is another game that requires skill, intelligence and ability to plan and help promote and maintain all of these skills in players.
A study conducted in 2004 by the British Journal of Neurology showed that playing backgammon help symptoms of Alzheimer's. This is one game that helps to improve one's cognitive skills. A game like Parcheesi help develop hand-eye coordination and basic problem-solving skills. Meanwhile, Chinese Checkers is a whole lot of fun, also involving logic and sequence during play. It is a cognitive activity that is perfect for long-term care patients as one can spend hours playing it without realizing it.
How Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Work?
How Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Work?
Cognitive behavioral therapy is about how you think about yourself, the people around you and the world in general and how the things you do affect your thoughts and feelings. The reason people go to cognitive behavior therapy is to change the way they think and what they do. When changes occur, a person feel better.
Cognitive behavior therapy focuses on present your problems rather than concentrating on the problems that cause pain and suffering you in the past. This therapy is about improving one's state of mind in mind.
How Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Work:
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps a person to take the problem can be overcome and broken into small pieces so that people can understand the problem. By solving a big problem into pieces smaller allows people to see how all the parts are connected and how they affect him. Usually the problem is split into small pieces the following:
* Situation
* Thoughts
* Emotions
* Feelings of physical
* Actions
Each of the above mentioned pieces smaller can affect others. How someone views a problem can affect physical and emotional. This can also affect the way people react to the problem. Reactions can help or not help, depending on how you think about the problem.
For example, you walk in the street and someone you know walk past you without looking at you is a situation. Now you can break this situation becomes smaller as mentioned above.
Thoughts: You can think about it a positive or negative. You may think that people who ignore you because he does not like you. Or, you may think that people looked deep within / her mind and now you wonder if everything was fine with people.
Emotional feelings: You feel sad and rejected. Or, you can start to worry about people
Physical: You may get stomach cramps and feel you do not have the energy. Or, you can not physically affect at all.
Action: Go home, moping and then avoid the person entirely. Or, you can contact the person to check is everything okay with him.
As you can see the first part of your reaction in any pieces smaller does not help while the second part is very helpful. Therefore, this means that every situation can lead to two different results depending on how you think about the situation. Then you think has an effect on your feelings and how you react to situations.
If you react negatively or in a way that does not help, it makes you feel worse and it could make you think and feel things that are not good about yourself as you must be a bad person or not friendly, etc.
However, cognitive behavioral therapy helps you to change the way of thinking, feeling and behaving. When you see something in the parts of the whole, you can change the thoughts, feelings and behavior (actions). Therapy allows you to exercise your own unique way to deal with problems and problematic situations.
Cognitive behavioral therapy is about how you think about yourself, the people around you and the world in general and how the things you do affect your thoughts and feelings. The reason people go to cognitive behavior therapy is to change the way they think and what they do. When changes occur, a person feel better.
Cognitive behavior therapy focuses on present your problems rather than concentrating on the problems that cause pain and suffering you in the past. This therapy is about improving one's state of mind in mind.
How Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Work:
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps a person to take the problem can be overcome and broken into small pieces so that people can understand the problem. By solving a big problem into pieces smaller allows people to see how all the parts are connected and how they affect him. Usually the problem is split into small pieces the following:
* Situation
* Thoughts
* Emotions
* Feelings of physical
* Actions
Each of the above mentioned pieces smaller can affect others. How someone views a problem can affect physical and emotional. This can also affect the way people react to the problem. Reactions can help or not help, depending on how you think about the problem.
For example, you walk in the street and someone you know walk past you without looking at you is a situation. Now you can break this situation becomes smaller as mentioned above.
Thoughts: You can think about it a positive or negative. You may think that people who ignore you because he does not like you. Or, you may think that people looked deep within / her mind and now you wonder if everything was fine with people.
Emotional feelings: You feel sad and rejected. Or, you can start to worry about people
Physical: You may get stomach cramps and feel you do not have the energy. Or, you can not physically affect at all.
Action: Go home, moping and then avoid the person entirely. Or, you can contact the person to check is everything okay with him.
As you can see the first part of your reaction in any pieces smaller does not help while the second part is very helpful. Therefore, this means that every situation can lead to two different results depending on how you think about the situation. Then you think has an effect on your feelings and how you react to situations.
If you react negatively or in a way that does not help, it makes you feel worse and it could make you think and feel things that are not good about yourself as you must be a bad person or not friendly, etc.
However, cognitive behavioral therapy helps you to change the way of thinking, feeling and behaving. When you see something in the parts of the whole, you can change the thoughts, feelings and behavior (actions). Therapy allows you to exercise your own unique way to deal with problems and problematic situations.
Definition of cognitive therapy
Definition of cognitive therapy
Cognitive therapy is a treatment method of psychotherapy that helps a person overcome the problems associated with emotions, behavior and cognition through a methodical and goal-oriented routes.
Many techniques used in cognitive therapy the same basic learning theory and cognitive behavioral psychology.
Many non-clinical issues such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders and substance abuse disorders can be effectively treated with cognitive therapy.
The benefits of this therapy is that no longer wide and can be offered to individuals or in groups. A person can also change the techniques used in therapy as a means of self-help. Some concentrate on the cognitive therapy to help while others concentrate on behavioral problems.
Cognitive therapy is being used more and more to assist criminals in an effort to reduce criminal behavior. Many prisons and jails in many countries have a cognitive therapy program as part of prison rehabilitation.
Cognitive-oriented therapy concentrates on the identification and monitoring of thoughts, beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that lead to negative emotions. In addition, patients are taught to identify thoughts, beliefs, assumptions, and dysfunctional behavior and does not help and then replace them with people who are more useful.
Cognitive therapy believe in facing the present and relieve symptoms. This therapy has proven very useful for people who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), bulimia nervosa and clinical depression. In fact, the efficacy of this therapy has been proven many times and often the preferred method of treatment compared to other treatments psychodynamic
Cognitive therapy is a treatment method of psychotherapy that helps a person overcome the problems associated with emotions, behavior and cognition through a methodical and goal-oriented routes.
Many techniques used in cognitive therapy the same basic learning theory and cognitive behavioral psychology.
Many non-clinical issues such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders and substance abuse disorders can be effectively treated with cognitive therapy.
The benefits of this therapy is that no longer wide and can be offered to individuals or in groups. A person can also change the techniques used in therapy as a means of self-help. Some concentrate on the cognitive therapy to help while others concentrate on behavioral problems.
Cognitive therapy is being used more and more to assist criminals in an effort to reduce criminal behavior. Many prisons and jails in many countries have a cognitive therapy program as part of prison rehabilitation.
Cognitive-oriented therapy concentrates on the identification and monitoring of thoughts, beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that lead to negative emotions. In addition, patients are taught to identify thoughts, beliefs, assumptions, and dysfunctional behavior and does not help and then replace them with people who are more useful.
Cognitive therapy believe in facing the present and relieve symptoms. This therapy has proven very useful for people who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), bulimia nervosa and clinical depression. In fact, the efficacy of this therapy has been proven many times and often the preferred method of treatment compared to other treatments psychodynamic
BASIC CONCEPTS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
BASIC CONCEPTS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
A. Definition of Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the study of scientific study of mental processes or thoughts. This process includes how information is obtained, presented and ditransfermasikan as knowledge. Knowledge is raised again as a guide in human attitudes and behavior. Therefore, cognitive psychology also known as information-processing psychology.
B. Role of Cognitive Psychology
In the world of psychology, cognitive psychology study is needed, because:
1.
Cognition is the mental or thought processes that play an important and fundamental for studies of human psychology.
2.
View of cognitive psychology mempengarui many areas of psychology other. For example kofnitif widely used approach in counseling psychology, consumer psychology and others.
3.
Through prinsiprinsip cognition, one can manage information efficiently and properly organized.
C. Factors Driving the rapid development of Information Psychology
Several factors driving growth include psokologi information:
1.
Decreasing popularity of behaviorism psychology because psychology can not explain human behavior in complex
2.
The development of the concept of language skills possessed by human beings.
3.
The emergence of cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget (Swiss psychologist). Piaget suggested some laws of cognitive, namely:
1.
Every person has the cognitive aspect, which consists of the structural aspects of the intellectual.
2.
Cognitive development is the result of interaction of the maturing organism and environmental influences.
3.
Cognitive process that includes aspects of perception, memory, thoughts, symbols, reasoning and problem-solving.
4.
In cognitive psychology, language becomes one object atu important, because it is a manifestation of cognitive attitudes.
5.
Cognitive sides influenced by environmental and biological
Cognitive Aspects
1.
Maturity → As we get older, the more sensible one.
2.
Experience → result of interaction with others.
3.
Social transmission → social relationships and communication in accordance with the environment.
4.
Equilibrasi → mix of experience and social transmission processes.
There are 2 systems that regulate cognitive
1.
Scheme → inter-integrated systems and incorporated
2.
Adaptation, consisting of assimilation and accommodation.
*
Assimilation occurs in objects that include biological (reflection, limited ability etc.) and cognitive (combining something already obtained)
*
Accommodation occurs on the subject
4. Contains the development of information-processing approach, this approach bersal of communications and computer science.
BASIC CONCEPTS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN CONNECTION WITH THE INFORMATION
There are two basic concepts of cognitive psychology, namely cognitive and cognitive approaches.
A. Cognition
In terms of cognition, the cognitive psychology is seen as a branch of psychology which studies the mental processes or activities of the human mind, such as the processes of perception, memory, language, reasoning and problem-solving.
The examples relating to information:
1.
Process-The process of perception
There was a new employee who worked at a company level less professionalism. There, good employees are diligent and lazy get the same salary. After a long time to adapt in the office, the employee Beru has the perception that he does not need to work seriously because it will not affect his salary.
1.
Memory
The ability to remember information from the reading course will be longer than just heard. Because the reading, the mind / brain we will work harder to understand and store information. While the hearing, we only rely on the ears, as long as we memorized. Sometimes even without understanding.
1.
Language
Information will be easier to understand, and we understand, if the language used in accordance with our language, that information will get more leverage we use. Because the brain / mind we are able to digest the core information.
1.
Reasoning
Someone who has a good reason will be able to obtain information relating to the problem, not only from one side only. But it can be obtained from other parts, because a problem is usually the only indication.
1.
Issue
Attitudes and human behavior may reflect the problem at hand. Attitudes and behavior, when combined with existing information, it can create a solution.
B. Cognition Approach
As an approach to the cognitive psychology can be viewed as a particular way of approaching the various phenomena of human psychology. This concept emphasizes the roles of perception, knowledge, memory and thought processes of human behavior.
Examples relating to information
1.
Role-role perceptions
People who berpersepsi / think that failure is success deferred, he would always try to try again, although he did not know when he will succeed. Because of her mind the more he tried, the more information obtained, the error rate can be minimized / avoided. This makes a person a patient and tenacious.
1.
Knowledge
People are a lot of knowledge, usually more understanding and be able to manage information quickly, because she knew how to get information fast, accurate, cheap and efficient.
1.
Process-Thinking Process
Levels of education, the environment and way of life affects the processes and patterns of thinking. Highly educated people, living in the neighborhood educated and modern way of life, usually will find an information-based way of more rapid technological and practical. This is because they have been shaped into a modern personal way of thinking fast
A. Definition of Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the study of scientific study of mental processes or thoughts. This process includes how information is obtained, presented and ditransfermasikan as knowledge. Knowledge is raised again as a guide in human attitudes and behavior. Therefore, cognitive psychology also known as information-processing psychology.
B. Role of Cognitive Psychology
In the world of psychology, cognitive psychology study is needed, because:
1.
Cognition is the mental or thought processes that play an important and fundamental for studies of human psychology.
2.
View of cognitive psychology mempengarui many areas of psychology other. For example kofnitif widely used approach in counseling psychology, consumer psychology and others.
3.
Through prinsiprinsip cognition, one can manage information efficiently and properly organized.
C. Factors Driving the rapid development of Information Psychology
Several factors driving growth include psokologi information:
1.
Decreasing popularity of behaviorism psychology because psychology can not explain human behavior in complex
2.
The development of the concept of language skills possessed by human beings.
3.
The emergence of cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget (Swiss psychologist). Piaget suggested some laws of cognitive, namely:
1.
Every person has the cognitive aspect, which consists of the structural aspects of the intellectual.
2.
Cognitive development is the result of interaction of the maturing organism and environmental influences.
3.
Cognitive process that includes aspects of perception, memory, thoughts, symbols, reasoning and problem-solving.
4.
In cognitive psychology, language becomes one object atu important, because it is a manifestation of cognitive attitudes.
5.
Cognitive sides influenced by environmental and biological
Cognitive Aspects
1.
Maturity → As we get older, the more sensible one.
2.
Experience → result of interaction with others.
3.
Social transmission → social relationships and communication in accordance with the environment.
4.
Equilibrasi → mix of experience and social transmission processes.
There are 2 systems that regulate cognitive
1.
Scheme → inter-integrated systems and incorporated
2.
Adaptation, consisting of assimilation and accommodation.
*
Assimilation occurs in objects that include biological (reflection, limited ability etc.) and cognitive (combining something already obtained)
*
Accommodation occurs on the subject
4. Contains the development of information-processing approach, this approach bersal of communications and computer science.
BASIC CONCEPTS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN CONNECTION WITH THE INFORMATION
There are two basic concepts of cognitive psychology, namely cognitive and cognitive approaches.
A. Cognition
In terms of cognition, the cognitive psychology is seen as a branch of psychology which studies the mental processes or activities of the human mind, such as the processes of perception, memory, language, reasoning and problem-solving.
The examples relating to information:
1.
Process-The process of perception
There was a new employee who worked at a company level less professionalism. There, good employees are diligent and lazy get the same salary. After a long time to adapt in the office, the employee Beru has the perception that he does not need to work seriously because it will not affect his salary.
1.
Memory
The ability to remember information from the reading course will be longer than just heard. Because the reading, the mind / brain we will work harder to understand and store information. While the hearing, we only rely on the ears, as long as we memorized. Sometimes even without understanding.
1.
Language
Information will be easier to understand, and we understand, if the language used in accordance with our language, that information will get more leverage we use. Because the brain / mind we are able to digest the core information.
1.
Reasoning
Someone who has a good reason will be able to obtain information relating to the problem, not only from one side only. But it can be obtained from other parts, because a problem is usually the only indication.
1.
Issue
Attitudes and human behavior may reflect the problem at hand. Attitudes and behavior, when combined with existing information, it can create a solution.
B. Cognition Approach
As an approach to the cognitive psychology can be viewed as a particular way of approaching the various phenomena of human psychology. This concept emphasizes the roles of perception, knowledge, memory and thought processes of human behavior.
Examples relating to information
1.
Role-role perceptions
People who berpersepsi / think that failure is success deferred, he would always try to try again, although he did not know when he will succeed. Because of her mind the more he tried, the more information obtained, the error rate can be minimized / avoided. This makes a person a patient and tenacious.
1.
Knowledge
People are a lot of knowledge, usually more understanding and be able to manage information quickly, because she knew how to get information fast, accurate, cheap and efficient.
1.
Process-Thinking Process
Levels of education, the environment and way of life affects the processes and patterns of thinking. Highly educated people, living in the neighborhood educated and modern way of life, usually will find an information-based way of more rapid technological and practical. This is because they have been shaped into a modern personal way of thinking fast
Senin, 21 Desember 2009
Learning Theory of Cognitive Psychology
I. The basic principles of cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the study of scientific study of mental processes or thoughts. How the information obtained, presented and ditransfermasikan as knowledge. Cognitive psychology is also called the psychology of information processing.
Person's behavior based on the action to know / think of a situation where the behavior occurred.
The basic principles of cognitive psychology
* Active Learning
* Learning through social interaction
* Learning through experience alone
The theory developed in cognitive psychology marked the birth of Gestalt theory (Mex Weitheimer) which states that the experience is structured to form a whole.
There are 2 mandatory law in Gestalt theory:
- Pragnaz (clarity)
- Closure (totality)
Important concept in this theory INSIGHT, namely: pengmatan or sudden understanding of the relationship between the parts in a problem situation.
A. Theory of Cognitive-Field Study of the Lewin
Based on the Gestalt theory, Lewin developed a theory of learning based on the Life Space (the psychological world of the individual's life). Each - each individual in the field of psychological forces, the field is called Life Space is composed of two elements of the personality and social psychology.
He states that learning behavior is an attempt to reorganize / restruktur (from the contents of the soul). Behavior is the result of the interaction between both the strength of the (goals, needs, stress, etc.) and outside (the challenges, problems).
B. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
In theory, he considers that the process of thinking as the activity of gradual intellectual function from concrete to abstract. He used the term scheme: patterns of behavior that can be repeated. Relating to:
* Reflex nature (breathing, eating, drinking)
* Scheme of mental (behavioral patterns observed hard, and that can be observed)
According to Piaget's cognitive development of individuals that includes four levels, namely:
(1) sensory motor;
(2) pre operation;
(3) concrete operational and
(4) formal operational
Include individual cognitive development according to Piaget's four stages, namely:
a. Maturity
b. Physical experience / environment
c. Social transmission
d. Equilibrium / self regulation
According to Piaget's intelligence consists of three aspects, namely:
-structure (scheme): patterns of behavior that can be repeated
-content (content): the pattern of specific behavior (when facing the problem)
-function (function): berhunbungan a way to achieve one's intellectual progress.
C. Learning According to JA Brunner (Discovery Learning)
Brunner's theory states that children should actively participate in learning in the classroom. The purpose of the Discovery Learning is a method to organize the presentation of the students that the way in which children can learn the material, in accordance with the child's ability level.
The act of discovery of Burner:
1. The existence of a potential increase in intellectual
2. Emphasized intrinsic rewards than extrinsic
3. Students who learned how to find the meaning that students master the methods of discovery learning
4. Students prefer to remember information
In addition to these three characters Ausubel also influential in cognitive psychology. He expressed ekspository teaching theory, which can be organized or presented in a well in order to generate understanding and good reviews are the same as discovery learning.
D. Implications of cognitive development theory
Implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in learning are:
1. Language and different ways of thinking children with adults. Therefore teachers
teaching by using appropriate language with the way children think.
2. The children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment.
Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
3. Materials to learn new child, but should feel familiar.
4. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of development.
5. In the classroom, the children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussion
with friends.
The application of cognitive theory of learning depends on the accommodation. Students should be given to an unknown area that he can learn, because he can not learn from what has been known saja.dengan a new area, students will have to be able to accommodate business.
II. The role of educators and learners
The role of educators and learners
- Teacher as a demonstrator
- The teacher as a mediator and facilitator
- Teachers as evaluators
Teachers in general act as:
Teachers, class leaders, counselors, environmental regulation, partissipan, ekspeditor, planners, suvervisor, motivator, pen, evaluators and counselors.
In addition to the role that has been mentioned above, it is necessary and important that is owned by the educators of educators need to know about the psychological learners. Suryabrata: 2004)
Learner role
pebelajar independent study as a subject position, in control, or decision makers for their own learning initiatives.
III. Learning Approach and Methods
A. Learning Approach
Many learning approaches that can be used by teachers to their students learn unttuk field of study or subject matter they are tekuni, from the most classical to the most modern. Among them:
1). Jost Law Approach
According to Reber (1988), one of the key assumptions underlying the Law of Jost (Jost's Law) is a more frequent student practice and lesson materials will be easier to call back the old memories associated with the material he's been a commitment. Furthermore, based on the assumption that the law Jost learn tips 5 x 3 is better than 3 x 5, although the second product is the same trick.
2). Approach Ballard & Clanchy
According to Ballard & Clanchy (1990), students learn pedekatan generally influenced by the attitude toward science (attitude to knowledge). There are two kinds of students in dealing with science, namely: 1) attitudes to preserve what already exists (Conserving); and 2) the attitude of extending (extending).
3). Approach Biggs
According to research results Biggs (1991), students' learning approaches can dikelempokkan into three prototype (basic form).
1) Approach surface (surface / is outer)
2) Pedekatan deep (deep)
3) achieving approach (high achievement).
B. Learning Method
Method etymologically means "way". In common usage, the method is defined as a way to do an activity or how to do the job by using the facts and concepts systematically. In the world of psychology, a systematic method of means procedure (sequential procedure) is used to investigate the phenomenon diguanakan or psychiatric symptoms such as clinical methods, experimental methods, and so on.
Furthermore, the definition of learning methods is the way that contains the standard procedure for carrying out learning activities, especially activities presenting lesson material.
Variety and amount of actual learning methods, and many can hardly be counted on the fingers, starting from the most traditional to the most modern.
The following authors present a learning method for studying the text (discourse), especially those contained in books, scientific articles and research reports. Tips that are specifically designed to understand the contents of the text is called SQ3R, developed by Francis P. Robinson at Ohio State University United States. This method is practical and can be diaplikaikan in various learning approaches.
SQ3R stands for the principle steps include studying the text:
1. Survey, meant to check or examine or identify all of the text. In a survey of teachers' activities to help encourage students to examine, or examine the whole structure secaa brief text. Tujuannyaaga students knew the length of text, section headings (heading) and the title of subsection (a sub-heading), the terms and keywords, and so on.
2. Question, is menyususn list of questions relevant to the text. In this role the teacher is expected to provide guidance or examples to the students to feed the questions clear, concise and relevant to the text passages that have marked the first step.
3. Read, read text that is actively to seek jawabatas petanyaan-structured questions that have been. In this case also means that reading is active reading focused on the paragraph, which is estimated to contain a paragraph answers the estimated relevant to these questions.
4. Recite, memorize every answer has been found. In this activity the teacher asked his students to list the answers to questions that have been made without opening notes of the answers.
5. Review, review all the answers to questions that composed the second and third rare.
IV. Learning Materials and Resources
A. Learning Materials
Learning materials (Instructional materials) is the material required for the formation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students must master in order to meet the competency standards set.
Learning materials occupy a very important position of the whole curriculum, which must be prepared for the implementation of learning can achieve the target
The material chosen for the learning activities material should really support the achievement of standards and basic competencies.
Types of Learning Materials
Material fact is anything that bewujud reality and truth, including the names of objects, historical events, symbols, place names, names of people, a part or component of an object, and so on
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Sejarah: Events around the proclamation of August 17, 1945 and the establishment of Indonesian rule.
Concept is any material tangible new insights that can arise as a result of thought, including the definition, understanding, originality, substance, core / content and so on.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Biologi: tropical rain forest in Indonesia as a source of germplasm, conservation efforts in Indonesia keanekargaman biodiversity in-situ and ex-situ., Etc..
Matter of principle are the main things, the subject, and have the most important positions, including theorem, formula, adage, postulates, paradigm, theorems, and relationships between concepts that describe the causal implications.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Physics: Newton's laws of motion, Newton's 1st Law, 2nd Law of Newton, Newton's 3rd Law, static friction and kinetic friction, and so on.
Materials Procedure steps include systematically or sequentially in doing an activity and the chronology of a system.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran TIK: Step-by-step Internet Access, tricks and strategies for using Web Browser and Search Engine,
Attitude or value of materials is the affective aspects of learning outcomes, such as the value of honesty, affection, mutual help, enthusiasm and interest in learning and work, and so on.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Geografi: Utilization of natural resources based on the principle ekoefisiensi, utilization of natural resources and sustainable development, etc..
Mata Pelajaran Sociology: Social interaction and social dynamics, socialization and personality formation.
B. Source Learning
AECT describe the learning resources include: messages, people, materials, tools, techniques and environments. The components of learning resources used in teaching and learning activities can be distinguished by the way that can be seen from the existence of a planned learning resource and exploited.
Source material includes learning is also a game to provide information and skills to students and teachers (Sudono, 2000:7).
Hamalik (1994:195), states that learning resources are all resources that can be used by students, either individually or together with other students, to facilitate learning.
Mudhofir (1992:13) states that the study included a variety of sources of information, data science, human ideas, whether in the form of printed materials (such as books, brochures, pamphlets, magazines, etc.) or non-print form (eg film, filmstrip, cassette, videocassette, etc.).
From the above two opinions can be concluded that the source of learning is anything that can be utilized both teachers and students in learning subject matter, making it easier for students to understand the lesson material.
A. Kinds of Learning Resources
AECT describe the learning resources include: messages, people, materials, tools, techniques and environments. The components of learning resources used in teaching and learning activities can be divided into two, namely learning resources planned and deliberate learning resources exploited. This second explanation is as follows:
1) By studying a deliberately planned (by design) are all learning resources that have been developed specifically as a component of instructional system to provide facilities-directed learning and formal.
2) By learning because exploited (by utilization) is a source of learning that are not specifically designed for learning purposes but can be found, applied, and used for the purposes of learning (AECT Task Force, 1986:9).
Based on the above description, it can be seen that the source of learning is one component of an instructional system that can be: the message, people, materials, equipment, techniques and background (environment). Learning resource can be explained as follows:
1) message, is the lesson / information transmitted by other components in the form of ideas, facts, meanings, and the data.
2) The person, human implies that acts as storage, processing, and the presenters messages. Not including those who run funsgi development and management of learning resources.
3) 3. Material, is something (can also be called programs or software) that contains a message for display through the use of tools or by itself.
4) Tools, is something (usually also called hardware) that is used to convey messages stored in the material.
5) technique, associated with routine procedures or reference prepared to use materials, equipment, people, and the environment to deliver the message.
6) Environment, is a situation about which message was received (Mudhoffir, 1992:1-2).
Semiawan (1992:96) states that in fact we often forget about teaching and learning resources contained in our environment, both in the vicinity of the school or outside the school environment. No matter how small or remote, a school, at least have four types of learning resources are very rich and useful, namely:
1) The village community or town around the school.
2) physical environment around the school.
3) The material remaining unused and discarded junk that can cause environmental pollution, but if we were able to serve as a source of learning and teaching tool.
4) natural events and the events that occurred in the community attracted enough students. There are events that may not be certain to happen again. Do not miss the event with no books or notes on the minds of students.
In general, learning resources can be:
1) Printed Goods, such as curriculum, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, and others.
2) The place, such as: schools, libraries, museums, etc.
3) Resource person / people, such as: teachers, community leaders, instructors, and others.
The types of learning resources that interact with each other in the teaching-learning process in order to achieve learning goals. Thus, students learning results are essentially the interaction between the components of an instructional system with a participant-learners.
B. Objectives and Functions Learning Resources
The use of learning resources aims to:
1) Increase knowledge of students' knowledge of subject matter presented teachers,
2) Prevent verbalistis for students,
3) Encourage students to the real world,
4) Developing teaching-learning process interesting, and
5) Develop divergent thinking in students (Semiawan, 1992:97)
Utilization of learning resources will surely broaden students' knowledge. Through a source of learning, students' understanding of a subject matter will increase. This will prevent verbalistis well for students. With the use of learning resources so students not only learn the lesson material in the form of words alone, but in a comprehensive manner will know the substance of the material studied.
Source study also aims to bring students into the real world. In a sense, students not only in the shadows of a material but the source of learning, students are faced directly into the real world, a situation directly related to the lesson material.
Utilization of learning resources also aims to develop teaching-learning process interesting. In a sense, through the utilization of learning resources is certainly the teaching-learning process more active and interactive. Interesting things can be found when teachers take advantage of learning resources is a lot of the interaction, ie between students with students, students with teachers, students with students and teachers.
Divergent thinking is a thinking activity in which students can provide an alternative answer to the permasahalan discussed. Through the utilization of learning resources students are expected to be able to think divergent.
The learning resource function as:
1) the means to develop memproseskan skills acquisition,
2) strengthen the relationship between the students with the environment,
3) develop students' experience and knowledge,
4) make the teaching-learning process more meaningful (Semiawan, 1992:100).
Skills acquisition process refers to something that can be obtained when teachers use learning resources. Therefore, the function of learning resources as a means to develop skills related to memproseskan acquisition activity in the use of teacher learning resources. In a sense, when teachers learn to utilize resources are certainly there must be something that can be obtained by the students.
Other learning resources function is to strengthen students' relationship with the environment. This is related to the utilization of learning resources committed teachers. The more teachers learn to utilize resources from the surrounding environment, the students closer to their environment.
Experience and knowledge will students learn subject matter which is of great importance. Therefore, the existence of a source of learning works to develop experience and knowledge of students. Through the utilization of learning resources, the experience and knowledge students will be more developed.
Function learning resources that make teaching-learning process more meaningful, related to the activities of teachers in learning memanfatakan sources. Through the use of appropriate learning resources, so teachers can make the teaching-learning process more meaningful. That is, teachers are able to manage the teaching-learning process centered on the students, not teaching-learning process centered on the teacher.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the study of scientific study of mental processes or thoughts. How the information obtained, presented and ditransfermasikan as knowledge. Cognitive psychology is also called the psychology of information processing.
Person's behavior based on the action to know / think of a situation where the behavior occurred.
The basic principles of cognitive psychology
* Active Learning
* Learning through social interaction
* Learning through experience alone
The theory developed in cognitive psychology marked the birth of Gestalt theory (Mex Weitheimer) which states that the experience is structured to form a whole.
There are 2 mandatory law in Gestalt theory:
- Pragnaz (clarity)
- Closure (totality)
Important concept in this theory INSIGHT, namely: pengmatan or sudden understanding of the relationship between the parts in a problem situation.
A. Theory of Cognitive-Field Study of the Lewin
Based on the Gestalt theory, Lewin developed a theory of learning based on the Life Space (the psychological world of the individual's life). Each - each individual in the field of psychological forces, the field is called Life Space is composed of two elements of the personality and social psychology.
He states that learning behavior is an attempt to reorganize / restruktur (from the contents of the soul). Behavior is the result of the interaction between both the strength of the (goals, needs, stress, etc.) and outside (the challenges, problems).
B. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
In theory, he considers that the process of thinking as the activity of gradual intellectual function from concrete to abstract. He used the term scheme: patterns of behavior that can be repeated. Relating to:
* Reflex nature (breathing, eating, drinking)
* Scheme of mental (behavioral patterns observed hard, and that can be observed)
According to Piaget's cognitive development of individuals that includes four levels, namely:
(1) sensory motor;
(2) pre operation;
(3) concrete operational and
(4) formal operational
Include individual cognitive development according to Piaget's four stages, namely:
a. Maturity
b. Physical experience / environment
c. Social transmission
d. Equilibrium / self regulation
According to Piaget's intelligence consists of three aspects, namely:
-structure (scheme): patterns of behavior that can be repeated
-content (content): the pattern of specific behavior (when facing the problem)
-function (function): berhunbungan a way to achieve one's intellectual progress.
C. Learning According to JA Brunner (Discovery Learning)
Brunner's theory states that children should actively participate in learning in the classroom. The purpose of the Discovery Learning is a method to organize the presentation of the students that the way in which children can learn the material, in accordance with the child's ability level.
The act of discovery of Burner:
1. The existence of a potential increase in intellectual
2. Emphasized intrinsic rewards than extrinsic
3. Students who learned how to find the meaning that students master the methods of discovery learning
4. Students prefer to remember information
In addition to these three characters Ausubel also influential in cognitive psychology. He expressed ekspository teaching theory, which can be organized or presented in a well in order to generate understanding and good reviews are the same as discovery learning.
D. Implications of cognitive development theory
Implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in learning are:
1. Language and different ways of thinking children with adults. Therefore teachers
teaching by using appropriate language with the way children think.
2. The children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment.
Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
3. Materials to learn new child, but should feel familiar.
4. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of development.
5. In the classroom, the children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussion
with friends.
The application of cognitive theory of learning depends on the accommodation. Students should be given to an unknown area that he can learn, because he can not learn from what has been known saja.dengan a new area, students will have to be able to accommodate business.
II. The role of educators and learners
The role of educators and learners
- Teacher as a demonstrator
- The teacher as a mediator and facilitator
- Teachers as evaluators
Teachers in general act as:
Teachers, class leaders, counselors, environmental regulation, partissipan, ekspeditor, planners, suvervisor, motivator, pen, evaluators and counselors.
In addition to the role that has been mentioned above, it is necessary and important that is owned by the educators of educators need to know about the psychological learners. Suryabrata: 2004)
Learner role
pebelajar independent study as a subject position, in control, or decision makers for their own learning initiatives.
III. Learning Approach and Methods
A. Learning Approach
Many learning approaches that can be used by teachers to their students learn unttuk field of study or subject matter they are tekuni, from the most classical to the most modern. Among them:
1). Jost Law Approach
According to Reber (1988), one of the key assumptions underlying the Law of Jost (Jost's Law) is a more frequent student practice and lesson materials will be easier to call back the old memories associated with the material he's been a commitment. Furthermore, based on the assumption that the law Jost learn tips 5 x 3 is better than 3 x 5, although the second product is the same trick.
2). Approach Ballard & Clanchy
According to Ballard & Clanchy (1990), students learn pedekatan generally influenced by the attitude toward science (attitude to knowledge). There are two kinds of students in dealing with science, namely: 1) attitudes to preserve what already exists (Conserving); and 2) the attitude of extending (extending).
3). Approach Biggs
According to research results Biggs (1991), students' learning approaches can dikelempokkan into three prototype (basic form).
1) Approach surface (surface / is outer)
2) Pedekatan deep (deep)
3) achieving approach (high achievement).
B. Learning Method
Method etymologically means "way". In common usage, the method is defined as a way to do an activity or how to do the job by using the facts and concepts systematically. In the world of psychology, a systematic method of means procedure (sequential procedure) is used to investigate the phenomenon diguanakan or psychiatric symptoms such as clinical methods, experimental methods, and so on.
Furthermore, the definition of learning methods is the way that contains the standard procedure for carrying out learning activities, especially activities presenting lesson material.
Variety and amount of actual learning methods, and many can hardly be counted on the fingers, starting from the most traditional to the most modern.
The following authors present a learning method for studying the text (discourse), especially those contained in books, scientific articles and research reports. Tips that are specifically designed to understand the contents of the text is called SQ3R, developed by Francis P. Robinson at Ohio State University United States. This method is practical and can be diaplikaikan in various learning approaches.
SQ3R stands for the principle steps include studying the text:
1. Survey, meant to check or examine or identify all of the text. In a survey of teachers' activities to help encourage students to examine, or examine the whole structure secaa brief text. Tujuannyaaga students knew the length of text, section headings (heading) and the title of subsection (a sub-heading), the terms and keywords, and so on.
2. Question, is menyususn list of questions relevant to the text. In this role the teacher is expected to provide guidance or examples to the students to feed the questions clear, concise and relevant to the text passages that have marked the first step.
3. Read, read text that is actively to seek jawabatas petanyaan-structured questions that have been. In this case also means that reading is active reading focused on the paragraph, which is estimated to contain a paragraph answers the estimated relevant to these questions.
4. Recite, memorize every answer has been found. In this activity the teacher asked his students to list the answers to questions that have been made without opening notes of the answers.
5. Review, review all the answers to questions that composed the second and third rare.
IV. Learning Materials and Resources
A. Learning Materials
Learning materials (Instructional materials) is the material required for the formation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students must master in order to meet the competency standards set.
Learning materials occupy a very important position of the whole curriculum, which must be prepared for the implementation of learning can achieve the target
The material chosen for the learning activities material should really support the achievement of standards and basic competencies.
Types of Learning Materials
Material fact is anything that bewujud reality and truth, including the names of objects, historical events, symbols, place names, names of people, a part or component of an object, and so on
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Sejarah: Events around the proclamation of August 17, 1945 and the establishment of Indonesian rule.
Concept is any material tangible new insights that can arise as a result of thought, including the definition, understanding, originality, substance, core / content and so on.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Biologi: tropical rain forest in Indonesia as a source of germplasm, conservation efforts in Indonesia keanekargaman biodiversity in-situ and ex-situ., Etc..
Matter of principle are the main things, the subject, and have the most important positions, including theorem, formula, adage, postulates, paradigm, theorems, and relationships between concepts that describe the causal implications.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Physics: Newton's laws of motion, Newton's 1st Law, 2nd Law of Newton, Newton's 3rd Law, static friction and kinetic friction, and so on.
Materials Procedure steps include systematically or sequentially in doing an activity and the chronology of a system.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran TIK: Step-by-step Internet Access, tricks and strategies for using Web Browser and Search Engine,
Attitude or value of materials is the affective aspects of learning outcomes, such as the value of honesty, affection, mutual help, enthusiasm and interest in learning and work, and so on.
Example:
Mata Pelajaran Geografi: Utilization of natural resources based on the principle ekoefisiensi, utilization of natural resources and sustainable development, etc..
Mata Pelajaran Sociology: Social interaction and social dynamics, socialization and personality formation.
B. Source Learning
AECT describe the learning resources include: messages, people, materials, tools, techniques and environments. The components of learning resources used in teaching and learning activities can be distinguished by the way that can be seen from the existence of a planned learning resource and exploited.
Source material includes learning is also a game to provide information and skills to students and teachers (Sudono, 2000:7).
Hamalik (1994:195), states that learning resources are all resources that can be used by students, either individually or together with other students, to facilitate learning.
Mudhofir (1992:13) states that the study included a variety of sources of information, data science, human ideas, whether in the form of printed materials (such as books, brochures, pamphlets, magazines, etc.) or non-print form (eg film, filmstrip, cassette, videocassette, etc.).
From the above two opinions can be concluded that the source of learning is anything that can be utilized both teachers and students in learning subject matter, making it easier for students to understand the lesson material.
A. Kinds of Learning Resources
AECT describe the learning resources include: messages, people, materials, tools, techniques and environments. The components of learning resources used in teaching and learning activities can be divided into two, namely learning resources planned and deliberate learning resources exploited. This second explanation is as follows:
1) By studying a deliberately planned (by design) are all learning resources that have been developed specifically as a component of instructional system to provide facilities-directed learning and formal.
2) By learning because exploited (by utilization) is a source of learning that are not specifically designed for learning purposes but can be found, applied, and used for the purposes of learning (AECT Task Force, 1986:9).
Based on the above description, it can be seen that the source of learning is one component of an instructional system that can be: the message, people, materials, equipment, techniques and background (environment). Learning resource can be explained as follows:
1) message, is the lesson / information transmitted by other components in the form of ideas, facts, meanings, and the data.
2) The person, human implies that acts as storage, processing, and the presenters messages. Not including those who run funsgi development and management of learning resources.
3) 3. Material, is something (can also be called programs or software) that contains a message for display through the use of tools or by itself.
4) Tools, is something (usually also called hardware) that is used to convey messages stored in the material.
5) technique, associated with routine procedures or reference prepared to use materials, equipment, people, and the environment to deliver the message.
6) Environment, is a situation about which message was received (Mudhoffir, 1992:1-2).
Semiawan (1992:96) states that in fact we often forget about teaching and learning resources contained in our environment, both in the vicinity of the school or outside the school environment. No matter how small or remote, a school, at least have four types of learning resources are very rich and useful, namely:
1) The village community or town around the school.
2) physical environment around the school.
3) The material remaining unused and discarded junk that can cause environmental pollution, but if we were able to serve as a source of learning and teaching tool.
4) natural events and the events that occurred in the community attracted enough students. There are events that may not be certain to happen again. Do not miss the event with no books or notes on the minds of students.
In general, learning resources can be:
1) Printed Goods, such as curriculum, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, and others.
2) The place, such as: schools, libraries, museums, etc.
3) Resource person / people, such as: teachers, community leaders, instructors, and others.
The types of learning resources that interact with each other in the teaching-learning process in order to achieve learning goals. Thus, students learning results are essentially the interaction between the components of an instructional system with a participant-learners.
B. Objectives and Functions Learning Resources
The use of learning resources aims to:
1) Increase knowledge of students' knowledge of subject matter presented teachers,
2) Prevent verbalistis for students,
3) Encourage students to the real world,
4) Developing teaching-learning process interesting, and
5) Develop divergent thinking in students (Semiawan, 1992:97)
Utilization of learning resources will surely broaden students' knowledge. Through a source of learning, students' understanding of a subject matter will increase. This will prevent verbalistis well for students. With the use of learning resources so students not only learn the lesson material in the form of words alone, but in a comprehensive manner will know the substance of the material studied.
Source study also aims to bring students into the real world. In a sense, students not only in the shadows of a material but the source of learning, students are faced directly into the real world, a situation directly related to the lesson material.
Utilization of learning resources also aims to develop teaching-learning process interesting. In a sense, through the utilization of learning resources is certainly the teaching-learning process more active and interactive. Interesting things can be found when teachers take advantage of learning resources is a lot of the interaction, ie between students with students, students with teachers, students with students and teachers.
Divergent thinking is a thinking activity in which students can provide an alternative answer to the permasahalan discussed. Through the utilization of learning resources students are expected to be able to think divergent.
The learning resource function as:
1) the means to develop memproseskan skills acquisition,
2) strengthen the relationship between the students with the environment,
3) develop students' experience and knowledge,
4) make the teaching-learning process more meaningful (Semiawan, 1992:100).
Skills acquisition process refers to something that can be obtained when teachers use learning resources. Therefore, the function of learning resources as a means to develop skills related to memproseskan acquisition activity in the use of teacher learning resources. In a sense, when teachers learn to utilize resources are certainly there must be something that can be obtained by the students.
Other learning resources function is to strengthen students' relationship with the environment. This is related to the utilization of learning resources committed teachers. The more teachers learn to utilize resources from the surrounding environment, the students closer to their environment.
Experience and knowledge will students learn subject matter which is of great importance. Therefore, the existence of a source of learning works to develop experience and knowledge of students. Through the utilization of learning resources, the experience and knowledge students will be more developed.
Function learning resources that make teaching-learning process more meaningful, related to the activities of teachers in learning memanfatakan sources. Through the use of appropriate learning resources, so teachers can make the teaching-learning process more meaningful. That is, teachers are able to manage the teaching-learning process centered on the students, not teaching-learning process centered on the teacher.
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